[29] Both groups remained opposed to majority rule in the near future. AERIAL VIEW Crash site 0.27 2. [162] After Zimbabwe's independence, the new government closed its missions in Pretoria and Cape Town, only maintaining a trade mission in Johannesburg,[163] while the South African Diplomatic Mission in Salisbury was also closed.[164]. The United Nations Security Council Resolution 216 of 12 November 1965 called "upon all States not to recognise this illegal racist minority regime in Southern Rhodesia."[140]. On 11 November 1965, Rhodesia's minority white government made a unilateral declaration of independence (UDI) from the United Kingdom, as it became apparent that negotiations would not lead to independence under the white regime. [79] However, thereafter it recruited predominantly from the Ndebele ethnic group. The economy of the state of Rhodesia sustained international sanctions for a decade following the declaration of its independence, a resistance which waned as more southern African states declared independence and majority rule as well as the destruction of the Rhodesian Bush War. Kenneth Kaunda, heavily dependent on access through Rhodesia for his nation's copper ore exports, fuel, and power imports unofficially worked with the Rhodesian government. [81] Lieutenant General Alan Fraser, a senior strategist in the South African Defence Force wrote in 1970, "there can be no doubt in any of our minds that we have a common enemy: we, i.e. [29] However, once Rhodesia had been introduced as a topic for discussion in international bodies, extension of the status quo became a matter of concern to the British government, which perceived the scrutiny as a serious embarrassment to the United Kingdom. [96]:601 White emigration increased as the state called up more and more men to fight in the war, creating a vicious circle, which gradually limited the capacity of the Rhodesian state to continue the war. Description. Back to school shop. [96]:601 In February 1978, the Rhodesian Army stated it needed a minimum of 1,041 men to continue combat operations, and of those called up, only 570 reported for duty while the rest chose to move to South Africa. In the ten years after independence, around 60% of the white population of Zimbabwe emigrated, most to South Africa and to other mainly white, English speaking countries where they formed expatriate communities. The three-month-long conference almost failed to reach conclusion, due to disagreements on land reform, but resulted in the Lancaster House Agreement. Rhodesia 345 and 182-7. From 1958 onwards, white settler politics consolidated and ossified around resistance to majority rule, setting the stage for UDI. [70] A third ZIPRA incursion attempt in July 1969 met with similarly catastrophic results. With few exceptions, the international community backed Whitehall's assertion that Gibbs was the Queen's only legitimate representative, and hence the only lawful authority in Rhodesia. salisbury rhodesia then and now. [19] The considerable investment made by European residents in the economy financed the development of Southern Rhodesia's export industries as well as the infrastructure necessary to integrate it further with international markets. Share to Facebook. [42] However, the UK's refusal to grant them independence on their terms further confirmed their opposition to a political settlement on British terms, and fed their negative attitudes towards British interference in Rhodesian politics at large. I bet your average Rhodesian native ate better than his 2010 Zimbabwe contemporary. "[43] It would, however, be several years before the nationalists adopted armed struggle as their primary strategy for obtaining political power. In 1976, the South African government and United States governments worked together to place pressure on Smith to agree to a form of majority rule. [130] Some former officers of the Rhodesian Security Forces alleged that anthrax was used covertly during the late 1970s, but this has been disputed. Rhodesia still allowed Zambia to export and import its goods through its territory to Mozambique ports, despite the Zambian government's official policy of hostility and non-recognition of the post-UDI Smith Administration. The Rhodesian military seriously considered mounting a coup against a perceived stolen election ("Operation Quartz") to prevent ZANU from taking over the country. Copyright 2023 Salisbury Historical Society, New Hampshire. [117] As per the agreement, Lord Soames became Governor with full legislative and executive powers. . These negotiations took place in London in late 1979. Preserving Our Town's History and Traditions, Salisbury Historical Society, New Hampshire. [19] Small, rotating cadres of colonial civil servants who possessed little incentive to invest their skills in the local economy were insufficient to compensate for this disadvantage. The Pioneer Column halted here on 12th September and the next day the Union Flag was formally raised. However, after a meeting with Robert Mugabe and the central committee of ZANU (PF), Ian Smith was reassured that whites could and should stay in the new Zimbabwe. The US government responded by saying the Rhodesian mission and its staff had no official diplomatic status and violated no US laws. Within the month, the Rhodesian police and army had launched a counteroffensive codenamed Operation Nickel, killing forty-seven insurgents, capturing another twenty, and driving the survivors across the border into Botswana. Salisbury went on using the shortened name in an official manner nevertheless,[4] while the British government continued referring to the country as Southern Rhodesia. In November 1971, Douglas-Home renewed contacts with Salisbury and announced a proposed agreement that would be satisfactory to both sides it recognised Rhodesia's 1969 constitution as the legal frame of government, while agreeing that gradual legislative representation was an acceptable formula for unhindered advance to majority rule. Following amendments to the country's constitution in 1987, parliamentary seats reserved for whites were abolished, and an executive presidency was created, held by Mugabe. "[122] The formidable nature of the Rhodesian security forces, as well as British fears of a direct South African intervention on behalf of the rogue colony, preempted the further consideration of military options. [38][39], Emboldened by the results of this referendum and the subsequent general election, the Rhodesian government threatened to declare independence without British consent. Salisbury, Zimbabwe Sign - 'Radio City' camera pans down to show various radios for sale. The southern areas were known for their heat and aridity, parts of the central plateau received frost in winter, the Zambezi valley was also known for its extreme heat and the Eastern Highlands usually experienced cool temperatures and the highest rainfall in the country. [5][20] As the white population increased, so too did capital imports, especially in the wake of the Second World War. All footage can be viewed on the British Path website. The Rhodesian army continued its "mobile counter-offensive" strategy of holding key positions ("vital asset ground") while carrying out raids into the no-go areas and into neighbouring countries. [6], In 1964, growing white dissatisfaction with the ongoing negotiations played a major role in the ousting of Winston Field as Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia. The Security Council also imposed selective mandatory economic sanctions, which were later made comprehensive. These economic successes owed little to foreign aid apart from the immigration of skilled labour. The new nation, identified simply as Rhodesia, initially sought recognition as an autonomous realm within the Commonwealth of Nations, but reconstituted itself as a republic in 1970. The storage tanks burned for five days, giving off a column of smoke that could be seen 130 kilometres (80mi) away. Salisbury: Then and Now 404 views Jul 22, 2014 4 Dislike Share Save DMHistorical 17 subscribers Salisbury, NY through several photos throughout its history 3.5K views 6 months ago 1972 Lake. [28] According to the commission, whites were in favour of the settlement, and Rhodesians of Coloured or Asian ancestry generally pleased, while the black response to the settlement's terms was resoundingly negative. Ian Smith said in his memoirs that even though many white South Africans supported Rhodesia, South African Prime Minister John Vorster's policy of dtente with the black African states ended up with Rhodesia being offered as the "sacrificial lamb" to buy more time for South Africa. [159] South Africa, however, retained its "Accredited Diplomatic Representative" after UDI,[56] which allowed it to continue to recognise British sovereignty as well as to deal with the de facto authority of the government of Ian Smith. The Southern Rhodesia (Property in Passports) Order 1965 provided that they were the property of the British government, allowing them to be impounded if presented by anyone arriving at a port of entry. | South African History Online", "There are many villains to blame for Zimbabwe's decade of horror | World news | The Observer", "Refworld | Resolution 221 (1966) of 9 April 1966", "When Sanctions Worked: The Case of Rhodesia Reexamined", "Rhodesia Unilateral Declaration of Independence 1965 Online exhibition", "1970:Ian Smith declares Rhodesia a republic", Ian Smith Strips Gibbs Of All Official Privilege, "Stella Madzimbamuto (Appellant) v Desmond William Lardner Burke and Frederick Phillip George (Respondents)", "2 March 1970 Rhodesia Declared a Republic", "BBC ON THIS DAY 2 1970: Ian Smith declares Rhodesia a republic", "40 years in wilderness after UDI declaration", "1972: Rhodesia's former leader arrested", "Insurgency in Rhodesia, 19571973: An Account and Assessment", "The Rhodesian Agreement: Aspects and Prospects", "Rhodesian Air Force Anti Terrorist Operations (COINOPS)", "APF newsletter, "Appraisal of Rhodesia in 1975", "White Moderates Cling To Hopes for Rhodesia", British Multimillionaire bankrolls Mugabe party, "Operation Agila, "The British Empire's Last Sunset", "BBC ON THIS DAY | 24 | 1976: White rule in Rhodesia to end", saboteurs hit Zimbabwean military, partisan comment, The Fragility of Domestic Energy, see page 5, "Did UK warn Mugabe and Nkomo about assassination attempts? On 18 April 1980 the country became independent within the Commonwealth of Nations as the Republic of Zimbabwe, and its capital, Salisbury, was renamed Harare two years later. The Rhodesian Air Force operated an assortment of both Canberra light bombers, Hawker Hunter fighter bombers, older de Havilland Vampire jets as well as a somewhat antiquated, but still potent, helicopter arm. In the latter 1970s, the militants had successfully put the economy of Rhodesia under significant pressure while the numbers of guerrillas in the country were steadily increasing. [123] The size of the Rhodesian Army had swelled to about 20,000 personnel, and the BSAP to over 40,000, including reservists. Until after the Second World War, the landlocked British possession of Southern Rhodesia was not developed as an indigenous African territory, but rather as a unique state that reflected its multiracial character. This is correct. The Constitution of the short-lived Zimbabwe Rhodesia, which saw a black-led government elected for the first time, reserved 28 of the 100 parliamentary seats for whites. [122], For much of its existence Rhodesia maintained a small professional standing army of 3,400 troops, about a third of whom were black volunteers. E/C Neg.) [28], Black nationalist parties reacted with outrage at UDI, with one ZANU official stating, "for all those who cherish freedom and a meaningful life, UDI has set a collision course that cannot be altered. South Africa, itself under international pressure as a white minority government, pursued a policy of dtente with the black African states at the time. International business groups involved in the country (e.g. Therefore, these countries are failures. After World War II the population grew as many people migrated to the city. A large number of these immigrants were of British working-class origin, with others coming from the Belgian Congo, Kenya, Tanzania, and later Angola and Mozambique. [citation needed], The main newspapers were the Rhodesia Herald in Salisbury and The Chronicle in Bulawayo. "[95], A major problem for the Rhodesian state in fighting the Bush War was always a shortage of manpower. Moving old buildings (how did they do that?). Yes! Salisbury Historical Society, New Hampshire Preserving Our Town's History and Traditions Exploring Salisbury, Then and Now This open sharing portion of our website and its pages are dedicated to an exploration of various subjects relevant to our town's history as well as its continuing traditions. The constitution prohibited Zimbabwe authorities from altering the Constitution for seven years without unanimous consent and required a three-quarters vote in Parliament for a further three years. Two introduced species of trees, the jacaranda and the flamboyant from South America and Madagascar . These forces, including highly trained special operations units, were capable of launching devastating raids on resistance movement camps outside the country, as in Operation Dingo in 1977 and other similar operations. The city was originally named Salisbury after the 3d marquess of Salisbury, then British prime minister. [43] The nationalists also murdered a number of black Rhodesians who were accused of collaboration with the security forces. Bishop Muzorewa's government did not receive international recognition. ZANU also attracted business supporters who saw the course that future events were likely to take. Rhodesia (/ r o d i /, / r o d i /), was a self-governing British Crown colony in southern Africa. The country's extreme east was mountainous, this area being known as the Eastern Highlands, with Mount Inyangani as the highest point at 2,592m (8,504ft). Portugal pursued a middle path with Rhodesia. [65][66][67] Both efforts failed to achieve agreement, although Harold Wilson added a sixth principle to the five he had previously enunciated: "it would be necessary to ensure that, regardless of race, there was no oppression of the majority by the minority or of [any] minority by the majority." Interestingly, the blue bus circumnavigating the roundabout is, I think, one belonging to a small company that ran services to one of Salisbury's northern suburbs, Marlborough, and was just known . The country's name was changed to Zimbabwe Rhodesia. The rapid decolonisation of Africa in the late 1950s and early 1960s alarmed a significant proportion of Southern Rhodesia's white population. [109], The shooting down on 3 September 1978 of the civilian Air Rhodesia airliner, a Vickers Viscount named the Hunyani, in the Kariba area by ZIPRA fighters using a surface-to-air missile, with the subsequent massacre of 10 of its 18 survivors, is widely considered to be the event that finally destroyed the Rhodesians' will to continue the war. [43] For the first time, the death sentence was also introduced for any act of politically inspired terrorism which involved arson or the use of explosives.[6]. [24][25][26] White Rhodesians balked at the premise of NIBMR; many felt they had a right to absolute political control, at least for the time being, despite their relatively small numbers. However, elections and a multiracial provisional government, with Smith succeeded by moderate Abel Muzorewa, failed to appease international critics or halt the war. [28][73] After the Rhodesian Front began introducing incentives accorded to domestic production, industrial output expanded dramatically. [83], In August 1967, a large and better-equipped column of almost seventy ZIPRA insurgents infiltrated Rhodesia from Zambia, bolstered by recruits from an allied South African militant organisation, uMkhonto we Sizwe (MK). The United African National Council (UANC) party won a majority in this election, and its leader, Abel Muzorewa (a United Methodist Church bishop), became the country's first black prime minister on 1 June 1979. by terrorising its political opposition, including supporters of ZAPU, through former insurgents that had not confined themselves to the designated guerrilla assembly points, as stipulated by the Lancaster House Agreement. Nevertheless, few could doubt that Mugabe's support within his majority Shona tribal group was extremely strong. [89] Funding and arms support provided by supporters, particularly from the Soviet Union and its allies in the latter 1970s, allowed both ZIPRA and the ZANLA to acquire more sophisticated weaponry, thereby increasing the military pressure that the guerrillas were able to place on Rhodesia. EXPLORE OUR ONLINE CHANNEL, BRITISH PATH TV. For the region, see, The geographical situation in 1965 (left, on UDI) and 1975 (right, after the independence of Mozambique and Angola from Portugal). Trees found in these Eastern Highlands included teak, mahogany, enormous specimens of strangling fig, forest newtonia, big leaf, white stinkwood, chirinda stinkwood, knobthorn and many others. [70] In 2005, a conference at the London School of Economics that discussed Rhodesia's independence concluded that UDI was sparked by an existing racial conflict complicated by Cold War intrigues. [96]:602 In order to stop white emigration, the Smith government brought in a law in 1975 forbidding Rhodesian citizens from holding foreign currency, but the law was widely flouted. This changed immediately after the election of Edward Heath, who reopened negotiations. In a referendum in 1969, white voters approved a new constitution and the establishment of a republic, thereby severing Rhodesia's last links with the British Crown, duly declared in March 1970. Special Branch War: Slaughter in the Rhodesian Bush Southern Ndebele land, 19761980. [122] It also possessed a helicopter squadron, a transport squadron, and a light reconnaissance squadron. However, the emerging doctrine of self-determination in colonial situations meant that most nations regarded Rhodesia's self-declared independence as illegitimate. In September 1968, the Appellate Division of the High Court of Rhodesia ruled that Ian Smith's administration had become the de jure government of the country, not merely the de facto one. [76], As early as 1960, minority rule in Southern Rhodesia was already being challenged by a rising tide of political violence led by black African nationalists such as Joshua Nkomo and Ndabaningi Sithole. 2 Waste-Illustrator145 10 hr. While often extraordinarily successful in inflicting heavy guerrilla casualties, such raids also on occasion failed to achieve their objectives. [42] Often repeated appeals to the Christian heritage of their pioneer ancestors in "defending the free world" and sustaining "Western civilisation" reflected these beliefs. [87] In 1976, there were 270,000 Rhodesians of European descent and six million Africans.[88]. [21] In light of these circumstances, Wilson quickly realised his ability to assert direct leverage over the incumbent Rhodesian government was limited. 1. [16][17][18], Over the course of the next three decades, Southern Rhodesia experienced a degree of economic expansion and industrialisation almost unrivaled in sub-Saharan Africa. [70] In the successive months, this attack was followed by a succession of raids on white farmers throughout the northeastern districts of the country and resulted in several casualties among the security forces. Back to school shop. [124], As a result of the escalating rural insurgency, the Rhodesian Security Forces began to depend more heavily on white conscripts and reservists of the Territorial Force and Territorial reserves. It assured whites of about one-third of the seats in parliament. In 1979, some special forces units were accused of using counterinsurgent operations as cover for ivory poaching and smuggling. [70] Thereafter, ZIPRA abandoned the notion of attempting to infiltrate the country with large groups of insurgents equipped only with small arms; it limited itself to more irregular forms of warfare until it could stockpile enough heavy weaponry to mount a major conventional invasion. [96], Brownell asserted that patriotism in the white community was "shallow" due to its essentially expatriate character. When Rhodesia set up the Rhodesian Information Office in Washington, DC, OAS nations loudly protested. Its northwest corner was roughly 150 metres (500 feet) from South West Africa (present-day Namibia), South Africa, nearly forming a four-nation quadripoint. [94], The war degenerated into rounds of increasing brutality from all three parties involved (ZANU and ZAPU, and the Rhodesian Army). [43] In response to the formation of ZIPRA, the Rhodesian government banned ZAPU, driving that party's supporters underground. [122] Harold Wilson once remarked that bringing an end to Rhodesian independence "would not be a case of arresting a subversive individual. The British Government (then led by the recently elected Margaret Thatcher) issued invitations to all parties to attend a peace conference at Lancaster House. [43] All seven were cornered and killed after a brief firefight; this event is considered to be the first engagement of the Rhodesian Bush War. Buried Treasure. We would like to encourage your participation in helping to grow this portion of the website. While there was never any suggestion of disloyalty among the soldiers from predominantly black units (in particular within the Selous Scouts or the Rhodesian African Rifles RAR), some argue that, by the time of the 1980 election, many of the RAR soldiers voted for Robert Mugabe. Until late 1969, Rhodesia still recognised Queen Elizabeth II as head of state, even though it opposed the British government itself for hindering its goals of independence. [86], The practical alliances between ZIPRA and MK, and later ZANLA and FRELIMO, prompted Rhodesia to look increasingly towards South Africa and Portugal for active assistance. [118] The alleged coup was to include the assassination of Mugabe and coordinated assaults on guerrilla assembly points throughout the country. [54], Despite the poor showing of sanctions, Rhodesia found it nearly impossible to obtain diplomatic recognition abroad. In response to the initiative of US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, in 1976 Ian Smith accepted the principle of black majority rule within two years. Fort Victoria to Salisbury. It became a municipality in 1897 and a city in 1935. The Lancaster House Agreement further provided for a ceasefire which was followed by an internationally supervised general election, held on February 1980. [83] On December 21, a group of ZANLA insurgents under Rex Nhongo crossed into Rhodesia from Mozambique and raided an isolated commercial farm. [71], Critics of UDI maintained that Ian Smith intended to safeguard the privileges of an entrenched colonial ruling class at the expense of the impoverished black population. Under the new constitution, a president served as ceremonial head of state, with the prime minister nominally reporting to him. [138] Kenneth Kaunda, president of Zambia, also accused western oil companies of violating the sanctions and selling oil to Rhodesia. [81], ZAPU's attempts to implement its armed struggle were hamstrung by a factional split within the party between 1962 and 1963. Amongst a century of detritus at the BBC there lies some buried treasure. Save Page Now. The deep recession of the 1930s gave way to a post-war boom. The city is a trade centre for tobacco, maize, cotton, and citrus fruits. In 1990, the government abolished the Senate. Rhodesia was originally a British colony. This situation continued throughout the UDI period. [21][27] They were also disturbed by the chaos of the post-colonial political transitions occurring in other African nations at the time, such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. [19] For example, in 1951 over 90% of white Southern Rhodesians were engaged in what the British government classified as "skilled occupations", or professional and technical trades. Note the Kopje to the right from which many views of Rhodesia's capital have been taken down the years. [21][64] The Waley Commission found that in practical as well as legal terms, "Europeans must surrender any belief in permanent European domination", pointing out that minority rule was not permanently sustainable. [129] The weapons the Rhodesians selected for use also included Vibrio cholerae (causative agent of cholera) and possibly Bacillus anthracis (causative agent of anthrax). [113] Nkomo and his family left hastily a few hours before the raid having clearly been warned that the raid was coming. Salisbury was the capital of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1953-63). The settlement was named in honour of the then Prime Minister of Britain: Lord Salisbury. Between 1953 and 1963, Southern Rhodesia was joined with Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland in the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The emergence of guerrilla warfare and acts of urban insurrection by the black nationalist parties in Rhodesia allowed racial politics to be elevated into an issue of law and order in white Rhodesian public discourse. The Southern Rhodesian colonial government in Salisbury felt that in the absence of a "Northern" Rhodesia, the continued use of "Southern" was superfluous. allhails has uploaded 3580 photos to Flickr. Six months' continuous residence was also required for qualifications (b) and (c). [59] Smith had intended to have Dupont named Governor-General, but Queen Elizabeth II would not even consider this advice. [48][49], Some Western nations, such as Switzerland, and West Germany, which were not UN member states, continued to conduct business openly with Rhodesia the latter remained the Smith government's largest trading partner in Western Europe until 1973, when it was admitted to the UN. [6], On 11 November 1965 the Cabinet of Rhodesia issued a unilateral declaration of independence (UDI). Business leaders and politicians feted Nkomo on his visits to Europe. Growing war weariness, diplomatic pressure, and an extensive trade embargo imposed by the United Nations prompted Rhodesian prime minister Ian Smith to concede to majority rule in 1978. This open sharing portion of our website and its pages are dedicated to an exploration of various subjects relevant to our towns history as well asits continuing traditions. Are you involved in working with the earth either in new ways of farming or landscape design? [50] Portugal served as a conduit for Rhodesian goods, which it exported through Mozambique with false certificates of origin. RHODESIA v TRANSVAAL (Currie Cup match) At Police Ground, Salisbury; 30, 31 October, 1 November 1971. The official name of the country, according to the constitution adopted concurrently with the UDI in November 1965, was Rhodesia. Capture a web page as it appears now for use as a trusted citation in the future. The 1961 Constitution governed Southern Rhodesia and independent Rhodesia up until 1969, using the Westminster Parliamentary System modified by a system of separate voter rolls with differing property and education qualifications, without regard to race. The spacious, modern city that has risen from such recent . A number of ZAPU dissidents rejected Nkomo's authority and formed their own organisation, the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), with Ndabangingi Sithole as its president and Robert Mugabe as its general secretary. [84][85] The action at Sinoia has been commemorated by supporters of the guerrillas since as "Chimurenga Day", and occupies a place of pride in ZANU hagiography. [6] When Smith and Deputy Prime Minister Clifford Dupont visited Sir Humphrey Gibbs, the Governor of Southern Rhodesia, to formally notify him of the UDI, Gibbs condemned it as an act of treason. Good general shots of Salisbury, shops, traffic, modern buildings, street scenes, skyscraper blocks, modern flats and apartments, statue of Rhodes, British and non-British goods in shops. [79] In 1963, ZIPRA also made its first formal request to the Soviet Union for military training. Founded by the British in 1890, it is a manufacturing and tobacco-processing. [124] Budgetary and resource restraints, coupled with manpower shortages, meant the security forces could not expand quickly enough to match the guerrilla movements, and were almost always outnumbered. [19] This resulted in the establishment of a diversified economy with a strong manufacturing sector and iron and steel industries. [107] Lord Richard produced news reports for ITN which typically contrasted the "incompetent" insurgents with the "superbly professional" government troops. [6] Ethnic tensions also exaberated the split: ZANU recruited almost solely from the Shona-speaking peoples of Rhodesia. Local people were forced to relocate to protected villages (PVs) which were strictly controlled and guarded by the government against rebel atrocities. Guerrillas began to launch operations deep inside Rhodesia, attacking roads, railways, economic targets and isolated security force positions, in 1976. Rhodes and his Pioneer Column marched north in 1890, acquiring a huge block of territory that the company would rule until the early 1920s. [90] Rhodesian representatives made it clear they were prepared to fight an all out war to prevent majority rule. In the suburbs of Salisbury, residents with selfmocking, stiff-upper-lip stoicism grumble .